Attachment Theory And Implications For Therapeutic Counselling Social Work Essay

Attachment Theory And Implications For Therapeutic Counselling Social Work Essay Outline your understanding of attachment theory and describe the implications of this for therapeutic counselling? Illustrate your answer with reference to clinical work. Consider the implications of this theory in a modern society, which has many alternative family structures. Introduction: What is early attachment theory? John Bowlby originally proposed attachment theory and defined attachment as any form of behavior that results in a person attaining or retaining proximity to some other differentiated and preferred individual, usually conceived as stronger and/or wiser (Bowlby, 1973, p. 292). Attachment or bonding is the developing relationship to parents, a carer or carers and is necessary for ordinary development. Childrens attachments can have an impact on the rest of their lives. Attachment behaviours begin early in life. This trusting relationship which is developed in infancy forms the foundation for a childs development. If children have a secure attachment, they will grow up to view the world as a safe place and they will be able to develop other emotions. However, children who experience early separation and loss will express this through their behaviour. A secure attachment will lead to better general coping skills, and the cost of insecure attachment may lead to isolation (Bowlby, 1969). In this essay I will present material about attachment theory. I will explore the different views and my aim is to relate it to clinical work. My illustrations will be drawn from theory and personal experience. Theory: According to Vera Fahlberg (1988) the most common causes of attachment problems, the highest risk being in the first two years of life, are sudden or traumatic separation from primary caretaker through death, illness, hospitalisaton of caretaker, or removal of child from the care of the established attachment figure/figures. Furthermore, she claims there are other causes for attachment problems which include physical, emotional or sexual abuse, neglect of physical or emotional needs, illness or pain that cannot be alleviated by caretaker, and frequent moves and/or placements i.e. foster care, adoptions and changes of caretaker within the family setting. John Bowlby (1988) believes if no bond or attachment is formed during early life the child is more likely to be unstable and anxious as an adult. The work of John Bowlby seems to have been the most influential in attachment theory and I feel Bowlby highlights the important implications for the counselling relationship. Before Bowlby the behaviour of infants to seek attachment with adults was thought to be about an instinct to search for food (Bee, 1999). Bee (1999, p. 42) cites Freud (1856-1939) as saying love has its origin in attachment to the satisfied need for nourishment. Freud suggested that the baby forms a bond with its mother by satisfying its hunger. He calls this stage of development the oral stage which begins soon after birth. Freud believes if the child satisfies this related need then it should promote a feeling of pleasure therefore, returning to a comfortable state (Bee, 1999). However, according to Fahlberg there is some evidence that the social needs are more important to the attachment process than meeting the physical needs. Fahlberg refers to Ainsworths (1913-1999) 1952 findings, social interactions, not routine care, are the most important part of mothering (Fahlberg, 1988, p.27). Erikson (1902-1994) however, shared most of Freuds basic assumptions, but differed between inner instincts, and outer cultural and social demands. Unlike Freud who placed central emphasis on inner instincts. However, Erikson named his developmental stages as psychosocial stages as he believes a person goes through different stages through their lives. To be able to reach self acceptance they must first fully develop each stage. If this does not happen then problems will arise (Bee, 1999). According to Bee (1999) Erikson describes the first stage as basic trust versus mistrust. Bee went on to say Erikson believed that the behaviour of the major caregiver (usually the mother) is critical to the childs establishment of basic sense of trust. (p.45). Therefore, if the caregiver responds to the child consistently, in a way the child has become accustomed, and responds in a loving and predictable way, then trust will develop. However, he believes if that doesnt happen, and the child has had inconsistent care then mistrust may develop, which may lead to anxiety. Erikson believed that development went on through the entire life span, as the child, and then the adult developing a sense of ever-changing identity (Bee, 1999). However, John Bowlby disregarded these theories of attachment, believing instead that the process was much more complicated. He put forward the idea that babies look for physical closeness, comfort, food and familiar interaction (Bowlby, 1988). The young childs hunger for his mothers love and presence is as great as his hunger for food (Bowlby, 1969, preface xiii) John Bowlby brought this concept to the fore and as Robert Karen states in his book, Becoming Attached, Bowlbys theory was bold, full of common sense, speculative but grounded in science, and threatening to the older views (1998, p.101). However, all three theorists seem to agree that healthy secure attachments are very important for human development. Attachment helps the child: attain full intellectual potential; sort out what he or she perceives; think logically develop a conscience; become self-reliant; cope with stress and frustration; handle fear and worry; develop future relationships; reduce jealousy. (Fahlberg, 1988, p.13) According to Ainsworth (1913-1999), attachment is an affectional bond that has been established by having a continuous loving and caring relationship with another human being. an affectional bond is a long enduring emotional tie to a specific individual (Leather, 2004, pp.21-25). Studies of children raised in institutions have shown that adequate physical care is not enough. A primary person to whom the child can become attached, who responds to the childs needs and who initiates positive activities with the child is indispensable. Attachments are formed by the constant repetition of two very positive cycles of interaction: The arousal relaxation cycle and The positive interaction cycle Fahlberg, V. (1988) Fitting the Pieces Together. (Practice Series: 17) British Agencies for Adoption Fostering: The following diagram illustrates a successful interaction between the caregiver and child. The child cries because of its need for food, caregiver feeds the child, the child becomes calm, therefore the childs needs have been met which will then establish a secure and trusting attachment. This cycle must be completed to ensure a healthy development. Fahlberg, V. (1988) Fitting the Pieces Together (p. 25) The next diagram illustrates the positive interactions between caregiver and child. The caregiver interacts and plays with the child, meeting social needs, the child responds, therefore building a childs confidence. Fahlberg, V. (1988) Fitting the Pieces Together (p. 27) If the babys needs are not met consistently then the baby doesnt develop trust, becomes full of rage and perceives the world as a dangerous place. This is then carried through into adulthood, causing feelings of insecurity through to sociopathic behaviour depending on the degree of mistreatment or abandonment for the individual (Fahlberg, 1998). The three patterns of attachment are: Secure Attachment exploration from secure base active seeking of contact upon reunion. Anxious/Avoidant Attachment independent exploration active avoidance upon reunion. Anxious/Resistant Attachment Poverty of Exploration Difficulty separating on reunion. Source: Mary Ainsworth (1979).Research. Jeremy Holmes stated in his book John Bowlby Attachment Theory, Mary Ainsworth (1982) first used the phrase secure base to describe the ambience created by the attachment figure for the attached person. The essence of the secure base is that it provides a springboard for curiosity and exploration. (Holmes, 1993, p. 70) John Bowlby believed that a secure base was the most important aspect of parenting a central feature of my concept of parenting, the provision by both parents of a secure base from which a child or an adolescent can make sorties into the outside world (Bowlby, 1988, p.11). Cultural Implications: Studies in other countries support Ainsworths belief that some form of secure base is needed for all infants, however, there are indications that behaviour may have to be interpreted differently in other cultures. According to Helen Bee (1999, p.192) German researchers, for example, have suggested that an insecure/avoidant classification in their culture may reflect not indifference by mothers, but explicit training towards greater independence in the baby (Grossmann, Grossmann, Spangler, Suess, Unzner, 1985). Furthermore, in Japan a greater valuing of emotional interdependence is associated with limited separation experiences, therefore heightening the distress experienced by many Japanese infants (Harwood, Miller Irizarry 1995. p.14) Therefore, it would appear that the infant behaves in a manner that responds to the maternal behavior that is both intuitive and reflective of the behaviour in its community. It is stated in Helen Bees book The Growing Child some form of secure base behaviour occurs in every child, in every culture. (1999, p.192). Bee says, we have a long way to go to understand how cultural differences affect the development of children but they form a significant backdrop for all development and to understand nurture, we must first understand the part culture plays (1999). Children are born into a diverse range of family structures and these structures may change during the course of childhood. Attachment theory highlights the role of the primary caregiver and in the process puts the spotlight on the person who is most likely to undertake this role in our society the mother. This can lead to argue against mothers working. Wyse (2004) states, Once the child has developed an attachment they will protest at separation from that preferred person and will show fear of strangers (p. 23). However, Vera Fahlberg says the attachment figure does not have to be the childs mother. The initial bonding can be the father or even an adoptive or foster mother, as long as the care is consistent during the early years of development. Of course there are many alternative family structures and views have changed over the years. Many people feel marriage is outdated and prefer to just live together. There also is the difficulty that surrounds divorce and the impact this has on young children. According to Robert Banton Jack Straw, the home secretary, stated in a document called Supporting Families (1998) changes in family organization we have mentioned are really linked to the social problems (2004, p.33). With rising divorce rates, social acceptance of sexual relations outside marriage and single sex partnerships will all have an impact on the way in which children are raised and by whom. I believe parenting practices have a greater effect on children than marital status. I divorced my husband when my children were still at school. I maintained a healthy relationship with my ex-husband because I felt it was important for the children to still see us as a family unit. I was determined that my children had constant access to their father and that he played a part in their upbringing. This has certainly had an impact on my children and they often said it was a better arrangement than two unhappy people living together. Blakeslee Wallerstein stated in their book Second chances: Men, women and children a decade after divorce when referring to children from divorced families, They fear betrayal. They fear abandonment. They fear loss. They draw an inescapable conclusion: Relationships have a high likelihood of being untrustworthy; betrayal and infidelity are probable (1989, p. 55). Although my children experienced the trauma of divorce, I feel I kept that disruption to a minimum. Clinical references and Personal insight: Following the birth of my first child, I chose to go back to work when she was six weeks old. Childcare was shared out between my husband, my cousin and my aunty and this situation continued for some time. I then made the decision to send my daughter to nursery when she was three, but she would not settle and screamed hysterically when I left her. When I picked her up she would cling to my legs and cry if I talked to anyone on the journey home. This seems to follow the pattern of insecure attachment. In Dominic Wyses book, Childhood Studies an Introduction, Leather cites stages of separation behaviour as observed by Robertson and Robertson may be unwilling to trust parent if/when they return, or may become very clingy and refuse to let parent leave them in any situation (2004, p.23). However, my daughter is now in her late twenties, she suffers from periodic bouts of depression and anxiety attacks. She doesnt seem to be able to settle into long term relationships, but in spite of that, in her working environment she is a confident adult holding a managerial position. I feel however, my daughter has inherited traits from her father as he suffers with bouts of depression; furthermore, two of his siblings have had a mental breakdown. Leather says, children take traits from both the mother and father such as physical features, but they can also inherit illnesses (2004) There is now a large body of evidence saying that children are capable of forming attachments to two or three caregivers and if the care arrangements are of good quality, and the quality of parenting has been established, then the child stands to benefit. Furthermore, Fahlberg says, it is not unusual to share the job of mothering and that the child, providing the quality of care is good and that it is consistent, can do just as well as those attached to one caregiver (1994). My daughters carers were consistently part of her growing up therefore; I feel the hereditary factor does play its part in her development. However, after my son was born I chose to give up my job and stay at home. My son didnt experience separation from me as an infant until the age of four when he settled into nursery with no problems. As an adult he seems to cope much better with stress and frustration and he is extremely confident and self reliant. This seems to bear out the positive effects of attachment therefore, highlighting that the relationship formed in early development seems to create a prototype for future relationships. It is interesting to reflect on my own parenting. My mother died when I was twelve and I became the little mother to my father and brother until my father died fifteen months later. This has left me with my own insecurities to deal with. According to Bowlby women who have lost their parents at an early age not only are they likely to have marital problems, after the birth of a child, they can also have difficulty interacting with their child (Bowlby, 1988). Unfortunately, as I said earlier my marriage did breakdown, but I dont believe I had difficulty interacting with my child. On the contrary, I feel I was over protective, because of loosing my parents, and I was anxious for my daughter. This may have contributed to my daughters dependency on me. Furthermore, I take into account that she was the first-born and therefore she had been the sole recipient of my attention. It would have been a different experience for her brother. Through personal development I am aware I have carried through, into adulthood, a lot of unresolved issues. There have been moments where I have felt a great dependence on my therapist and I worked very hard being the perfect client for my therapist to accept me. However, through exploration of my own attachment history I was able to recognise why I felt this dependency and need for acceptance. As my relationship with my therapist grows I feel I am able to be more honest about my feelings. I believe it is through establishing this warm trusting relationship I am able to work towards self acceptance, and as my confidence grows I feel more comfortable with who I am, therefore I no longer feel a need to please others to earn acceptance. This has highlighted how a client, with similar insecurities, may feel in the therapeutic relationship. Like me, the client will bring his own history into the counselling relationship and I feel the therapist needs to be able to acknowledge, with a deep understanding the insecurities the client may be feeling. I feel it is important to explore the clients relational history to establish whether there may be an issue of dependency. It was not easy to explore negative feelings that have been buried for so many years, but my therapist was able to provide a safe space for this to happen. Therefore, although I had my secure base ripped from under me at an early age, I feel my therapy is now my secure base where I can unravel my history and make some sense of it. This intimate relationship I have established with my therapist has allowed me to challenge, explore and take risks with the confidence of feeling accepted. intimate attachments to other human beings are the hub around which a persons life revolves, not only when he is an infant or a toddler or a school child but throughout his adolescence and his years of maturity as well, and into old age (Bowlby, 1980, p. 422). Conclusion: There seems to be an agreement between all the theorists that a secure attachment between a mother and infant is the ideal first relationship, and that relationship is of primary importance. Feeling secure and having your needs met by a consistent caregiver, within all cultures during the early years, is imperative to a healthy development. I feel attachment is the same across all societies, and that fundamentally all children need a secure base. Relationships are of fundamental importance in: the development of personality and sense of self; the difficulty clients bring to therapy (relations with the self and relations with other people); the therapeutic process (the therapy relationship is the heart of the process) Paul, S. and Pelham, G. (2000, pp. 110 -126). Relationships are important for our wellbeing. Whilst attachment types have helped me to understand my history, they have also helped me to understand the important elements for development. Attachment is about a close relationship, and its impact last from cradle to grave. It is now accepted that this relationship can be with more than one person as long as the care is affectionate, consistent, and provides a secure base. It is also agreed that separation from the caregiver during infancy will predict how an individual forms relationships as an adult. As a counsellor it is important to be aware of the different attachment behaviours to be able to provide that secure base from which the client can explore his/her own relationship history. Therefore, the counsellor needs to be able to provide support with deep understanding, Bowlby says,.it is the emotional communications between a patient and his therapist that play the crucial part (Bowlby, 1988, p.156)

Ancient Chinese Inventions

Ancient Chinese Inventions It is well known that China has an ancient and glorious history, from the feudal periods ending in 222 BC through the three Imperial and Intermediate Eras, up to the Modern era – over 4000 years of dynastic reigns. It may also be well known that China is the source of many wonderful and useful inventions from spaghetti to gunpowder. This list, however, will take a slightly different slant of the topic: Chinese inventions and developments that were not known to or adopted by the Western (European) world for many decades and sometimes centuries after they were common place in China.Some you may be familiar with, others perhaps less so. First on the list is Row Planting, which is from Feudal period through 6 century BC. The Chinese begin planting crops in rows sometime around 6 century BC. This allows the crops to grow stronger and a lot faster. It allows more efficient planting, weeding, harvesting and watering. There is also proof documented that they realized that when the wind travels over rows of plants it causes less damage to the crop. This development was not introduced in the western world for another 2200 years.A Chinese man by the name of Master Lu wrote in the â€Å"Spring and Autumn Annals†: If the crops are grown in rows they will mature rapidly because they will not interfere with each other’s growth. The vertical rows made for skill, the horizontal rows must be drawn well, for if the lines are straight the wind will pass gently through. Along with the above we have mechanical clock mechanisms. This was invented around 725 AD. This clock operated by dripping water that powered a wheel, which made one full revolution in 24 hours. A bronze and iron system of wheels and gears made the clock rotate.Accurate mechanical clocks were developed because of a belief in the form of astrology. This was based upon the moment of conception rather than the time of birth. In ancient years retainers would listen outside of royal bedrooms to record the possible times of conception of royal children. This event was important enough that considerable effort was devoted to developing accurate timing mechanisms. Next on the list would be the compass, which was developed around Feudal period through 4th cent BC. The Chinese developed a lodestone instrument to ndicate direction which is known as the compass. Upon development the compass were only south pointing and were primarily use for land as divination tools and direct finders. It was written that lodestone makes iron come or it attracts it. Spoons were used to point the direction, while mounted on plates. The spoons were made from lodestone, while the plates were of bronze. Later in year of 1040 thermo-remanence needles were produced for mariners. The common use of this was recorded around year 1119. The thermo-remanence technology is still in use today.Then we have deep drilling, the Chinese invented a tool used for deep drilling boreholes. This wa s invented around circa 202 BC through 220 AD. It is listed that some of these boreholes would reach the depths of 4800 feet. This technology would be easily recognizable to a modern engineer. The Chinese would stack rocks with center holes which were tube or doughnut shaped from the surface to the deep stone layer as a guide for their drills. In the search for salt wells the Chinese developed a technology of driving bamboo poles deep into the earth.In addition to brine this drilling also often tapped into reservoirs of natural gas. The natural gas was captured in barrels and used as fuel to evaporate the water from brine to produce salt. They used the gas to boil sea water which separated the salt allowing it to become drinkable. The Chinese also invented gun powder; this was invented around 850 AD. An enterprising alchemist mixed 75 parts saltpeter with 15 parts charcoal and 10 parts sulfur. This mixture had no discernible life-lengthening properties, but it did explode with a fla sh and a bang when it was exposed to an open flame.What is noted in text from the era is that smoke and flames result so that hand and faces have been burnt, and even the whole house where they were working burned down. Then we have something that is widely used and appreciated throughout countries, cities and societies, the commonly used paper. This was invented around 105 AD and was made from a suspension of hemp waste in water, washed, soaked and beaten with a wooden mallet. A paper mold, probably a sieve of coarsely woven cloth stretched in a four sided bamboo frame, was used to dip up the fiber slurry from the vat and hold it for drying.Initially it was used for clothing rather than writing material. It was used to make body armor for soldiers. Now we have the ancient Chinese great unique invention of porcelain, which was invented around 16 century BC. In very ancient times the Chinese discovered that with the right choice of clay and firing techniques pottery could be made so thin that is was translucent. Such porcelain became universally known as china. Last but definitely not lease we have the known Chinese invention of a fabric that is soft to the skin. This fabric is called silk, which was invented around 3000 BC.For more than two thousand years the Chinese kept the secret of silk altogether to themselves. It was the most zealously guarded secret in history. The Chinese discovered that the cocoons of silk worms could be unwound and the filaments used to weave an especially light strong and beautiful cloth. All of these inventions were invented by original everyday pioneers. The saying goes everyday people do extraordinary things. Out of all of these wonderful inventions that were discussed, the invention of silk, paper, row planting and the mechanical clock mechanism would be the choice of the most important.Let’s briefly go over the reasons why these four would be the most important inventions. The invention of silk has paved the way for cent uries of fabric wearers. In the ancient years a person could distinguish who was royalty by the silk garment that was worn. Silk is 100% natural fabric and is healthy for your breathing due to the fact that silk is naturally hypoallergenic. The invention of row planting allowed more efficient growth of produce for farming which allowed more and better food to sell and to eat.The invention of the mechanical clock mechanism has evolved in time to be a much needed daily device called the clock. A clock is an instrument use to indicate, keep and coordinate time. A clock refers to any device for measuring and displaying time. This clock mechanism invention has involved into personal time keepers like a wrist watch, pocket watch etc. The invention of paper would be one of the best great inventions due to the fact that paper is used for everything in daily life. Paper was used to spread information that was on hand written letters. Paper is also used for drawings and painting.Not to mentio n that paper is used for books, newspaper and lets not forgot paper is used for making what we all love to spend money. Of all of the inventions listed above if there were one invention that would be listed as a must have invention would be the invention of paper. The invention of paper has evolved into the making of paper money. Paper money consists of 1, 5, 10, 20 dollar bills and etc. Money is something generally accepted as a medium of exchange, a unit of account or a store of value. The first advantage to having money is that fact that stuff costs money. If you want things you have to have money to pay for them.Vary rarely do people just give their stuff away, they want something for it and money is the universal trade item. You can trade money for almost anything in the world. If you want a lot of stuff you need to have a lot of money. We now know that we owe a whole lot to the ancient Chinese for inventing so many things that are of important value to our lives. Makes you won der if they knew back then how important these inventions would become to be. References â€Å"About the Collection. † About the Collection. N. p. , n. d. Web. 20 Aug. 2012. <http://www. ipst. gatech. edu/amp/collection>. CHINESEA   INVENTIONS. † Chinese Inventions. N. p. , n. d. Web. 20 Aug. 2012. <http://www. vhinkle. com/china/inventions. html>. â€Å"History of Silk. † History of Silk. N. p. , n. d. Web. 20 Aug. 2012. <http://www. silk-road. com/artl/silkhistory. shtml>. â€Å"Natural Gas Exploration. † Natural Gas Exploration. N. p. , n. d. Web. 20 Aug. 2012. <http://www. explorations. org/natural_gas_exploration_cont. html>. â€Å"Origin of Chinese Porcelain. † Origin of Chinese Porcelain. N. p. , n. d. Web. 20 Aug. 2012. <http://www1. chinaculture. org/gb/en_artqa/2003-09/24/content_37884. htm>.

Differences Between the Federalists and Jeffersonians

During the early formative years of our nation, George Washington and John Adams both opposed any development towards splitting politics into two divisions. The two early leaders thought of it to be very unconstitutional, stating that Americans need to set aside their differences and remain unified. However, the rapidly growing interests of north and south, rich and poor, and industry and agriculture were all tossed around until two major political groups were finally formed.The Federalist Party, led by Alexander Hamilton, who preferred urban life and supported northern efforts, envisioned that the new country’s federal government should have more power, and wanted it to be a replica of the British system. In addition, Hamilton strived towards the creation of national banks that would establish fiscal policy, use debt to establish credit, and regulate a national currency. However, opposing viewers feared that a stronger federal government would do nothing but wipe out the newl y born democracy.The opposing competitors such as the Jeffersonians led by Thomas Jefferson, who preferred rural life and spoke for southern efforts, believed that it would be more necessary to provide the majority of the power with the individual states. The Jeffersonians also believed that the creation of national banks was unconstitutional, and that it wasn’t permitted by our early forefathers. As differences continued to occur, Americans only saw the gap between the two political parties widening more and more.When it came to foreign policy, Jefferson and Hamilton both encouraged America to remain neutral and to not take sides. They wanted the country to build relationships with other nations, but also to stay clear of any international conflict. However, Jefferson thought that America should be helping the French efforts against the British, while Hamilton thought that war efforts should be targeted at helping their mother country of England defeat the French.As time wen t on, the differences between both parties only grew on and on. While Jefferson seized agriculture to be the backbone of the nation, Hamilton wanted the economy to be equally balanced between agriculture, trade, finance, and manufacturing. All in all, both men were very well educated. Even though they shared completely different political views, Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton both made enormous contributions in shaping the new nation, and expected nothing less than a wonderful future for the United States.

Women s Proper Sphere, And The Godey s Lady Book...

Within the 19th century American atmosphere, is a realm of cultural tropes that distinguishes themselves among the common literature that people read. Among these people, are different demographics as each publication caters to a specific audience on the basis of race, gender, and residing region. While the readers of these publications come from varying backgrounds and belief systems, there are unique similarities that provide insight as to how people were reading in the 19th century. These similarities contextualize what these readers were looking for in these publications as well as their interests and habits in respect to the demographics represented in the periodical archive. The two publications that best contextualize gender are the Lowell Offering and the Godey’s Lady Book periodicals as the articles found in both magazines depict traditional gender roles for males and females. For the Lowell Offering, this is best seen in the article entitled, â€Å"Woman’s Proper Sphere†, which focuses on the thoughts associated with oppression like, â€Å"Is it ambitious wish to shine as man’s equal, in the same scenes in which he mingles† or â€Å"Does she wish for a more extensive influence, than that which emanates from a woman’s home?† Yet these progressive questions are met with answers like â€Å"How necessary, then, that she should understand these pursuits (of men), that she may truly sympathize with and encourage those, with whom she may be associated. In this way†¦her influence must and